Learning with English

Put Adverbs in Their Place

When, how, or why something is done is expressed by an adverb, whose primary function is signaled by its name: Adverbs modify verbs (and sometimes other parts of speech — more on that later). They appear more or less in proximity to the verb they modify, but their syntactical location can vary for diverse reasons.

An adverb often follows a verb: "I stated the rule clearly," but it can precede the verb ("I clearly stated the rule") and even the subject ("Clearly, I stated the rule"). Note, however, that the latter form can be confusing: Does the sentence mean that I succeeded in my attempt at clarity, or is the sense that it is obvious that I stated the rule? The sentence, or one that precedes or follows it, must include context. Also, punctuation can change the meaning: "I stated the rule, clearly" differs in sense from "I stated the rule clearly." (The version with the comma connotes that the writer believes that the fact is obvious.)

And what if a sentence includes two or more verbs? Place the adverb to make it clear which verb it modifies: "She drove quickly to the store and selected a hat" (or, again, "She quickly drove . . ." or "Quickly, she drove . . .") describes a lead-footed motorist, while "She drove to the store and selected a hat quickly" (or ". . . quickly selected a hat") suggests an impulsive, determined, or hurried shopper.

Adverbs are applied to infinitives, which are verb phrases beginning with the word to. The pedantic admonishment against inserting is challenged in this previous post by another DailyWritingTips contributor; suffice it to say here that such sentence constructions as "He sought to successfully challenge the champion" (rather than the awkwardly hypercorrect "He sought to challenge successfully the champion") are valid.

Adverbs, curiously, also modify adjectives (themselves modifiers), prepositions, and even other adverbs. In "They were nearly correct," for example, nearly modifies not the preceding verb were but the following adjective correct, and in "She and I met right on that corner" right modifies the prepositional phrase that follows, rather than the verb before it. "We quite rightly refused," meanwhile, quite modifies its fellow adverb rightly.

Adverbs change position depending on whether they are employed in declarative statements ("He really is that gullible") or interrogative sentences ("Is he really that gullible?"). Also, they often have distinct meanings based on their position in a sentence; for examples, see the section "Misplaced Words" in this post.

Some writing guides seem to give adverbs a bad rap, but read those resources carefully: The more sensible among them advise, as I do in this previous post about adverbs, hesitation in their employment only because their liberal use is often associated with limp verbs. And do take care to locate them correctly and effectively.

25 Adverbs That Get an "A"

You already know many adverbs that start with a-, a prefix that can mean, among other things, "on" (aboard) "in a state" (asleep), or "in a manner" (aloud). Here's a roster of some of the lesser-known words in this class, many of which inspire vivid imagery, evoke an archaic or rustic tone, or conjure an amusing tableau, perhaps all at once:

1. Aback ("surprised"; usually employed in the phrase "taken aback" in a passively constructed sentence): "She was taken aback by his vehemence."

2. Abaft ("at or toward the stern"): "They found the drunken sailor abaft, sleeping in a lifeboat."

3. Abed ("in bed"): "He found his friend abed, felled by a high fever."

4. Ablaze ("on fire"): "As they had feared, the shed was ablaze, the flames lighting the night sky."

5. Afar ("at a distance"): "From afar, they described the outline of a magnificent castle."

6. Afield ("on the field," "away from home," or "lost"): "The absentminded fellow, engrossed in a scholarly volume, soon found himself far afield."

7. Afire (see ablaze)

8. Aflutter ("agitated," or "flapping"): "The ladies were all aflutter at
hearing the stranger's vivid imprecations."

9. Afoot ("on foot," or "under way"): "The conspirators, he noticed as he watched them sneak away from the house, were already afoot."

10. Afresh ("again"): "Invigorated by the contents of the flask, we strode off afresh."

11. Agape ("gaping," or "exhibiting wonder"): "We stood staring at the spectacle, mouths agape."

12. Aghast ("shocked"): "She stood aghast, rendered speechless by the destruction we had wrought."

13. Agog ("eager"): "We kids were of course agog with excitement, for it was Christmas morning."

14. Apace ("quickly," or "keeping up with"): "The children kept apace with the marching band."

15. Aright ("correctly," or "in proper orientation"): "We set the fallen statue aright."

16. Askance ("sideways," and, by association, "with suspicion"): "Doubtful of the newcomer's motives, she looked askance at him."

17. Askew ("out of line," or "disheveled"; the root word is skew, "oblique, slanted"): "His coat hung askew on his shoulders."

18. Aslant ("at a slant," "oblique"): "The sun's rays struck the wall aslant."

19. Aslope ("sloping," or "slanting"): "The poorly erected tent tottered aslope under the tree."

20. Astir ("active," or "out of bed"): "She found the children, excited about the day's celebration, already astir in their room."

21. Astride ("with legs apart or on each side"): "He stood with his legs astride the struggling figure."

22. Asunder ("apart," or "in parts"): "The parchment had been rent asunder, and they painstakingly pieced it back together."

23. Athwart ("obliquely across," or "erroneously" or "unexpectedly"): "The rifle lay athwart the seat of the rowboat."

24. Atilt ("tilted," or, from tilt as a synonym for joust, "armed with a lance"): "The clumsily mounted knight charged, atilt in more than one sense."

25. Awry ("turned" or "twisted," or "other than correct or expected"): "To their dismay, they found that their plot had gone awry."

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10 Modes of Modifiers

A modifier is a sentence element — a word or a phrase — that provides details. Three types of modifiers exist: those that qualify by answering the question of how or under what conditions something occurs, those that set conditions or explain circumstances by answering the question of who, what, when, where, and why, and those that provide reasons or conclusions.

Modifiers can also be classified into these categories:

1. Initial dependent clause: "Even though I was tired, I went for a walk."

2. Initial infinitive phrase: "To calm down, I went for a walk."

3. Initial adverb: "Immediately, I went for a walk."

4. Initial participial phrase: "Trying to distract myself, I went for a walk."

5. Mid-sentence appositive: "I, in an effort to calm down, went for a walk."

6. Mid-sentence participial phrase: "I, trying to distract myself, went for a walk."

7. Terminal present participial phrase: "I went for a walk, hoping to distract myself."

8. Terminal past participial phrase: "I went for a walk, soothed by the breeze."

9. Terminal resumptive phrase: "I went for a walk — a walk that did me good."

10. Terminal summative phrase: "I went for a walk, an activity that calmed me down and distracted me from my troubles."

And, for a bonus, employ a combination of phrases: "Even though I was tired, I, in an effort to distract myself, went for a walk, soothed by the breeze."

Thanks to this variety of ways to modify a sentence, writers need not be concerned about producing pedestrian prose.

Affect vs. Effect

Among the pairs of words writers often confuse, affect and effect might be the most perplexing, perhaps because their meanings are so similar. Affect, derived from affectus, from the Latin word afficere, "to do something to, act on," is easily conflated with effect, borrowed from Anglo-French, ultimately stemming from the Latin word effectus, from efficere, "to bring about."

Affect

The various senses of affect, each followed by a sentence demonstrating them, follow:

A noun meaning "mental state": "In his report, the psychiatrist, noting his lack of expression or other signs of emotion, described his affect as flat."

A verb meaning "to produce an effect, to influence": "I knew that my opinion would affect her choice, so I deliberately withheld it."

A verb meaning "to pretend" or "to put on": "She tried to affect an air of nonchalance, though she was visibly agitated."

Words with affect as the root, followed by their use in a sentence, include the following:

Affectation: A noun meaning "self-conscious behavior": "The girl's affectation of sophisticated maturity was undercut by the relentless snapping of her chewing gum."

Affection: A noun meaning "kind or loving emotion": "Her grandfather's deep affection for her was obvious in his heartwarming smile."

Disaffected: An adjective meaning "discontented, rebellious": "Disaffected youth dismayed by the poor job market and the larger issue of a society that does not seem to value them have been joining the protest movement in ever greater numbers." (This word is a case of an antonym that has outlived the original term from which it was derived in counterpoint; writers and speakers no longer express, in the sense of "favorably disposed," that a person is affected.)

Unaffected: An adjective with two distinct senses: the literal meaning of "not influenced or altered" ("They seemed disturbingly unaffected by the tragic news") and the surprisingly older, figurative meaning "genuine" ("The youth's candid, unaffected demeanor appealed to her after the stilted arrogance of her many suitors").

Effect

The various senses of effect, each followed by a sentence demonstrating them, follow:

A noun meaning "the result of a cause": "The effect of the lopsided vote was a loss of confidence in the chairman."

A noun meaning "an impression": "The soft, gentle tone has a calming effect."

A noun, usually in plural form, meaning "personal property, possession": "Among the effects found in the deceased man's pockets was a small book with his name self-inscribed."

A verb meaning "to accomplish": "His newfound sense of responsibility effected a positive change in her attitude toward him."

Words with effect as the root, followed by their use in a sentence, include the following:

Aftereffect: A noun, usually in plural form, meaning "something that follows a cause": "The aftereffects of the decision are still being felt years later."

Effective: An adjective meaning "successful": "The insect repellent was effective at keeping the mosquitoes at bay, which made for a pleasant outing."

Effectual: An adjective meaning "able to produce a desired effect": "Our conclusion is that mediation is an effectual strategy for obtaining a mutually satisfying outcome."

The noun efficiency and the adjective efficient, though not based on the root effect, share its etymological origin and mean, respectively, "productivity" and "productive" in the sense of accomplishing something with a minimum of effort in relation to outcome. Efficacy ("the power to produce a desired effect") and efficacious ("able to produce a desired effect") are also related. Another, unexpected word of related origin is feckless ("weak, worthless"), which is rare and has lost its antonym, feckful, through long disuse. Feck is a shortened form of effect developed in Scottish English.

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7 Patterns of Sentence Structure

Sentence structure can be categorized into seven patterns: one simple, three compound, two complex, and one compound-complex. Here are examples of each pattern with accompanying formulas, all to help you think of how to craft sentences in a greater variety of syntax:

1. Simple sentence (independent clause): "I went for a walk."

(An independent clause is set of words that includes a subject and a predicate. It can be a sentence or part of one. A dependent, or subordinate, clause is one that cannot stand on its own but provides additional information to supplement an independent clause.)

2. Compound sentence, IC+CC+IC (independent clause plus coordinating conjunction plus independent clause): "I went for a walk, and I was soothed by the gentle night air."

(Coordinating conjunctions are words that link one independent clause to another to form a compound sentence. These words can be recalled with the mnemonic FANBOYS and include for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.)

3. Compound sentence, IC+S+IC (independent clause plus semicolon plus independent clause): "I went for a walk; I was soothed by the gentle night air."

4. Compound sentence, IC+AC+IC (independent clause plus adverbial conjunction plus independent clause): "I went for a walk; consequently, I was soothed by the gentle night air."

(Adverbial conjunctions are adverbs that serve, when following a semicolon, to link independent clauses. They include consequently, however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore, and thus.)

5. Complex sentence, DM+C+IC (dependent marker plus clause plus independent clause): "Because I hoped to be soothed by the gentle night air, I went for a walk."

(Dependent markers are words that provide a relative context for a subordinate clause. They include after, although, as, "as if," because, before, if, since, though, until, when, where, whether, and while.)

6. Complex sentence, RP+C (relative pronoun plus clause): "Whatever doubts I had about taking a walk dissipated when I was soothed by the gentle night air."

(Relative pronouns are pronouns that relate a subordinate clause to the noun it modifies. They include who, whom, whose, whoever, whosoever, whomever, which, what, whatever, and sometimes that.)

7. Compound-complex sentence, DC+IC+CC+IC (dependent clause plus independent clause plus coordinating conjunction plus independent clause): "As I headed out for a walk, my doubts about doing so dissipated, and I was soothed by the gentle night air."

There are, of course, many variations to these patterns; even a simple sentence, for instance, can begin with the object in the example converted to the subject of another simple sentence: "A walk was my next order of business."

Whether to Use "Whether" or "If"

Sometimes, when it comes to deciding between using the word whether and employing the word if, the correct choice is obvious: "I don't know if to turn the oven knob left or right" is obviously wrong, but the almost-identical statement "I don't know if I should turn the oven knob left or right" is acceptable. However, because if implies probability, and whether indicates a choice between alternatives, in formal writing, the latter is more appropriate.

Similarly, "I don't remember if I turned the oven off" is correct, but because "I don't remember whether I turned the oven off" more clearly expresses that two alternatives exist, it is better in formal contexts.

"Turn the oven off if you are leaving" is a conditional sentence — it involves probability, not choice — and therefore if is correct. But "Turn the oven off whether or not you are leaving" conveys two alternatives, so whether is better. Note also the insertion of the phrase "or not" into the sentence: When the sense of whether is "regardless of the possible alternatives," include the phrase.

However, in such constructions as "I don't remember whether I turned the oven off," because whether already has a sense of "yes or no," "or not" is redundant.

The phrase "as to whether" to mean "about whether," as in "I am unclear as to whether a decision has been made," is correct, but it's an unnecessary formality; "about whether" will do. The phrase is also somewhat pedantic in constructions such as "The question as to whether it will do any good hasn't been answered." Simplify to "Whether it will do any good hasn't been determined."

When whether follows a noun such as decision, issue, or question, it should do just that, without the word of intervening, if the phrase appears in a sentence such as "They will make a decision whether we're there or not." ("Or not" is necessary here because the sense of whether is "regardless.") But if the sentence structure is something like "It's an issue of whether they're qualified" (here, "or not" is superfluous), of is integral.

15 Words for Household Rooms, and Their Synonyms

Here's an alphabetical tour of domestic vocabulary to help you avoid getting lost or walking through the wrong doorway, and to give you a choice in navigating your way:

1. Attic: Synonyms for this word (from the Latin Atticus, "of Attica") for a room or area under the roof of a house include garret (the term is from the Middle English word garite, "watchtower, turret") and loft (from the Old English word for "air" or "sky), as well as the obscure cockloft. A loft that opens to a lower room is also called a balcony (the term is from the Italian word balcone, "large window"); this term may also refer to an upstairs outside porch or deck.

2. Bathroom: Because of the personal nature of the bathroom's function, this room has many (mostly euphemistic) synonyms, including latrine and lavatory (both words are derived from the Latin word lavare, to wash"), as well as restroom, washroom, and "water closet"; most of these, however, are usually applied only to public facilities.

Bath or toilet (the latter term is derived from the French word toilette, "cloth") are also common usage — though toilet more often refers specifically to the key fixture — as are slang terms like head (this term is from naval usage, when the "bathroom" was the bow of the ship), john (from the given name), or loo (suggested to be from the French word l'eau, "water"). Privy, ultimately from Latin privatus, "private," was originally synonymous with outhouse but may also refer to an interior room.

3. Boudoir: This French term (amusingly derived from the French word bouder, "to pout") can apply to a bedroom, a dressing room, or a sitting room for the woman of the house. It has erotic connotations that, depending on context, the more utilitarian bedroom may or may not have.

4. Cellar: This area, often partially or completely belowground (see hall for etymology), is also called a basement. Because such areas often remain cooler than the rest of the dwelling, the cellar was originally used to store food and/or wine. More recently, it has been relegated to a general storage space or converted into one or more bedrooms or an informal entertainment area.

5. Closet: This term, from the Anglo-French word closett, a diminutive of clos, "enclosure," originally referred to a secluded room but now applies to a usually walk-in cabinet for storing clothes and/or other household items.

6. Conservatory: Often a separate building (also known as a greenhouse) but sometimes attached to a house, the conservatory (the term stems ultimately from the Latin word conservare, "keep, observe") is familiar to players of the board game Clue but rare in real life. The similar solarium (the term is from the Latin word for a porch with sun exposure), also known as a sunroom or a sun parlor, is a glass-enclosed room that may double as a conservatory.

7. Den: This term was borrowed from the synonym for lair, and the connotation of a secluded refuge is not coincidental; the neologism "man cave" (or mancave) suggests a retreat where the lord of the manor may escape to avoid responsibilities or the expectation that he behave in a civilized manner.

The den may be used for entertainment or as an office or a study; those terms are also likely to be applied to a spare room where academic, professional, or leisure writing or research is done and/or where household management is conducted.

8. Foyer: This word, adopted into English from French when France was considered the epitome of all that is refined and proper, in the latter language means "fireplace" (the word is ultimately derived from the Latin word focus, "hearth"). In humble abodes, the hearth was close to the door (as was everything else), but the name stuck even as dwellings became larger. The word applies to entrance areas in public buildings as well; synonyms like entranceway, entryway, and lobby are usually applied only in that context, not in identifying the domestic equivalent.

Vestibule (the term is from the Latin word vestibulum, "forecourt") is a synonym that suggests a transitional area. An earthier equivalent, generally referring to a separate small chamber, is mudroom, though this area is often entered through a side door.

9. Garage: This term derives from the French word for "the act of docking, from garer "to dock"; it's probably related to guard and guarantee. It was originally (and sometimes still is) detached from the house and, before the advent of the automobile, was preceded by the carriage house, itself an extension or evolution of a barn.

10. Hall: This word, stemming from the Old English heall and related to the Latin word cella, "small room" (whence cellar — see above), originally referred to an entire dwelling (or at least its primary chamber) at a time when that was the living arrangement for a chieftain or a nobleman.

By extension, the word came to be applied later to public buildings, campus edifices, and the like, but it also diminished to refer to the entry of a house, and ultimately, when houses became more extensive, a corridor or passageway that communicates to various rooms. The sense of "entry" is discussed above in the, er, entry for foyer.

11. Kitchen: For reasons of safety, the kitchen (the term derives ultimately from the Latin word coquere, "to cook") was a separate building, but now it is often the figurative heart of the home. Related terms include buttery (a storeroom for liquor, from the Anglo-French word but, "cask"), pantry (a storeroom for food, ultimately from Latin panis, "bread"), and scullery (a cleaning area, ultimately from the Latin word scutella, "drinking bowl").

12. Library: Originally, in some homes an entire room was set aside just to store the domestic collection of books, either for ostentatious display (and perhaps rarely, if ever, read) or for practical purposes, in which case the room doubled as an office or study. The term stems from the Latin word librarium, based on the stem libr-, "book."

13. Nursery: When, in the homes of the well-to-do, children were best not seen nor heard, they were relegated to the nursery (the term is ultimately derived from the Latin word nutricius, "nourishing"), a combination sleeping and playing area. Now, a nursery is simply a bedroom occupied by the very young.

14. Parlor: As the name (from the Anglo-French word parler, "talk") implies, this is a room dedicated to conversation among inhabitants or with their guests; "drawing room" (from "withdrawing room," the room to which guests at a dinner party withdrew for postprandial conversation) is a synonym, as are salon and "sitting room."

The hall and the parlor have been supplanted by the living room and/or the family room, the latter a fairly recent development to provide a casual environment in contrast to the former, a more formal area. (Some houses, by contrast, have a great room, a large open area that may include space for more than one activity as well as a dining area and free access to the kitchen.)

15. Porch: The porch (the term is from the Latin word portico, ultimately derived from porta, "gate") is usually merely a raised approach to a house, though it can be enclosed and might double as a solarium (see below). Synonyms are gallery, lanai (from Hawaiian), piazza (from Italian) stoop, and veranda or verandah (from Hindi and Urdu); all but stoop (from the Dutch word for a step) imply an expansive area. A sleeping porch is a well-ventilated area, sometimes adjacent to a bedroom, for sleeping on hot, still nights.

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50 Words with the Most Whimsical Prefix

The prefix be- has a variety of interesting roles in language:

Causation
The prefix is affixed to a verb to indicate a causative agent, as in belittle, meaning "to diminish by criticism or mockery."

Creation
Become and begin, and the archaic-sounding beget, are words starting with the prefix that indicate something coming to be; the prefix also appears in words expressing the near opposite, such as behead.

Intensification
It's one thing to be dazzled by a luminous object, but a reference to being bedazzled implies a higher order of enchantment.

Position
Be- indicates relative placement, as in below or between.

Its addition to a word transforms nouns and adjectives into verbs, as in besiege and beware ("be aware"). It also changes intransitive verbs (those that do not take an object) into transitive ones, as with becalm.

The simple act of attaching these two letters to an existing word enhances English by providing us with terms that entertain us with their vivid imagery. Here are some more or less obscure be- words and their definitions:

becloud: to obscure or muddle
bedaub: to excessively ornament or anoint
bedazzle: to enchant
bedeck: to fancily clothe or decorate
bedevil: to annoy
bedew: to moisten
bedight: to equip or adorn
bedim: to obscure, or to reduce light
bedizen: to adorn or dress in a tacky manner
bedraggle: to drench
befit: to be appropriate for
befool: to delude or trick
begrime: to make dirty
begrudge: to give reluctantly
beguile: to seduce
behoove: to be appropriate
bejewel: to adorn with jewelry
belabor: to emphasize unnecessarily
belaud: to fulsomely praise
belay: to stop or hold off from
beleaguer: to trouble or bother
belie: to falsely imply, to reveal something as false, or to contradict
bemire: to expose to or engulf in mud
bemock: to ridicule
benight: overcome by literal or figurative darkness
benumb: to deprive of sensation
bepuzzle: to confuse
bequeath: to leave an inheritance (the noun form is bequest)
bereave: to deprive (one so treated is bereft)
beseech: to beg (the past tense is besought)
beseem: to be fitting or suitable
beset: to attack, harass, or surround
besmear: to stain or obscure, or to defame
besmirch: see besmear
besort: to fit or become (also a noun meaning "appropriate associate")
besot: to infatuate or muddle
besoul: to endow with a soul
bespatter: to splash
bespeak: to claim, request, address, or identify
besprinkle: to scatter or disperse
bestir: to rouse
bestow: to put to use or in place, or to convey a gift
bestrew: see besprinkle
betake: to commit, or cause to act
bethink: to recall, or to cause to consider
betroth: to promise to marry, or to give in marriage
bewhisker: to provide with whiskers (or, as bewhiskered, to have whiskers)
bewhore: to corrupt sexually, or to characterize as a whore
bewig: to place a wig on
bewray: to betray

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35 Troublesome Irregular Verbs

In English, many verbs adapt simply to the past tense with the attachment of either -d or -ed, as in walk/walked or brake/braked. These are called regular verbs.

Many other verbs, however, undergo more significant alterations to transform from references to present-tense actions to those representing actions performed in the past. Such words are called irregular verbs.

The simple past, the tense form that describes what has previously occurred, is fairly straightforward once one assimilates the forms for each irregular verb. But complications set in when the past participle — a verb assisted by an auxiliary verb, or a past-tense form of the verb to be — is employed.

Some past-participle forms are easily distinguished from their simple-past counterparts, as in the case of ate/eaten, for example, or saw/seen ("I ate already"/"I had eaten already"; "We saw the movie"/"We had seen the movie"). Others, however, often literally give writers pause. Many of them are presented below in sample sentences with simple-past usage for comparison:

1.
"A problem arose."
"A problem had arisen."

2.
"They beat the odds."
"They had beaten the odds."

3.
"She bore it well."
"She had borne it well."

4.
"He broke the record."
"He had broken the record."

5.
"My friend drank three beers already."
"My friend had drunk three beers already."

6.
"You forsook us."
"You had forsaken us."

7.
"The boy hid the ball."
"The boy had hidden the ball."

8.
"I lay on the floor for a moment."
"I had lain on the floor for a moment."

9.
"We rode far."
"We had ridden far."

10.
"The phone rang."
"The phone had rung."

11.
"She rose to the occasion."
"She had risen to the occasion."

12.
"She sang."
"She had sung."

13.
"He shook it loose."
"He had shaken it loose."

14.
"The shirt shrank when I dried it."
"The shirt had shrunk when I dried it."

15.
"We strode along merrily the entire way."
"We had stridden along merrily the entire way."

16.
"The team strove to come back from behind."
"The team had striven to come back from behind."

17.
"I swore that I had not taken it."
"I had sworn that I had not taken it."

18.
"They swam to the other end and back."
"They had swum to the other end and back."

19.
"He took her back home."
"He had taken her back home."

20.
"My sister tore the paper up."
"My sister had torn the paper up."

Hanged and Hung
The past-participle form of hang is a special case. When referring to an object, hung is employed for both simple past and past participle:

21.
"They hung the stockings with great care."
"They had hung the stockings with great care."

In reference to execution by hanging, however, hanged is often (but not always) used in both forms:

"The horse thief was summarily hanged."
"The horse thief had been summarily hanged."

Hung in the latter sense is more likely to appear in a more casual context, as in a jocular usage or when referring to hanging in effigy:

"I'll be hung by my feet over an open fire if I don't finish this in time."

Choices
Many other verbs offer writers alternative forms for past tense, past-participle tense, or both:

22.
"I awaked (or awoke or awakened) to a deafening hum."
"I had awoken (or awaked or awakened) to a deafening hum."

23.
"She forgot to call back."
"She had forgotten (or forgot) to call back."

24.
"The swimmer quickly dove (or dived) into the pool."
"The swimmer had quickly dived into the pool."

25.
"I got nothing in return."
"I had gotten (or got) nothing in return."

26.
"She lighted (or lit) another cigarette."
"She had lit (or lighted) another cigarette."

27.
"He proved that I was right."
"He had proven (or proved) me right."

28.
"The boat sank."
"The boat had sunk (or sank)."

29.
"She showed him the door."
"She had shown (or showed) him the door."

30.
"The medallion shined (or shone) in the sunlight."
"The medallion had shone (or shined) in the sunlight."

31.
"I sneaked (or snuck) out last night."
"I had snuck (or sneaked) out last night."

32.
"The tiger sprang (or sprung) noiselessly."
"The tiger had sprung noiselessly."

33.
"The car's interior stank (or stunk) of stale fast food."
"The car's interior had stunk of stale fast food."

34.
"My dog waked (or woke) me up."
"My dog had woken (or waked) me up."

35.
"My aunt weaved (or wove) the scarf."
"My aunt had woven (or weaved) the scarf."

Hope usefully

^_^

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Effective Presentations – stating your purpose

Posted on October 24, 2011

Good morning my brother and sister. I have emailed from our friend site, http://grammar-teacher.com. Posted about how we can make effective presentations and how to start tell some point that we will deliver to our participant or your students. I think it will useful for us.

It is important to state your purpose clearly at the beginning of your talk. Here are some ways to do this:

talk about = to speak about a subject

• Today I'd like to talk about our plans for the new site.
  
• I'm going to be talking to you about the results of our survey.
  

report on = to tell you about what has been done.

• I'm going to be reporting on our results last quarter.
  
• Today I will be reporting on the progress we have made since our last meeting.
  

take a look at = to examine

• First, let's take a look at what we have achieved so far.
  
• Before we go on to the figures, I'd like to take a look at the changes we have made.
  

tell you about = to speak to someone to give them information or instructions

• First, I will tell you about the present situation, then go onto what we are going to do.
  
• When I have finished, Jack will then tell you about what is happening in Europe.
  

show = to explain something by doing it or by giving instructions.

• The object of this morning's talk is to show you how to put the theory into practice.
  
• Today I'm going to show you how to get the most out of the new software.
  

outline = to give the main facts or information about something.

• I'd like to outline the new policy and give you some practical examples.
  
• I will only give you a brief outline and explain how it affects you.
  

fill you in on = to give some extra or missing information

• I'd like to quickly fill you in on what has happened.
  
• When I have finished outlining the policy, Jerry will fill you in on what we want you to do.
  

give an overview of = to give a short description with general information but no details.

• Firstly, I would like to give you a brief overview of the situation.
  
• I'll give you an overview of our objectives and then hand over to Peter for more details.
  

highlight = draw attention to or emphasize the important fact or facts.

• The results highlight our strengths and our weaknesses.
  
• I'd now like to go on to highlight some of the advantages that these changes will bring.
  

discuss = to talk about ideas or opinions on a subject in more detail.

• I'm now going to go on to discuss our options in more detail.
  
• After a brief overview of the results, I'd like to discuss the implications in more detail.
  

Must to express inference or possibility

Must does not always express compulsion or obligation. It is sometimes used to express inference or possibility or certainty.

• She must be home by now. (= I think she is certainly at home.)
  
• There is somebody at the door. That must be the postman. (= I think that is certainly the postman.)
  
• She must be about forty years old. (inference / possibility)
  
• What he says must be true.
  

Must can be used with a perfect infinitive (have + past participle) to express conclusions about the past.

• You must have been mad to do such a thing.
  
• 'Somebody phoned while you were out.' 'That must have been Susan.
  

Must and should

Note that should can be used as a weaker form of must in this case.

Compare:

• She must have gone home. (= I think she has certainly gone home.)
  
• She should have gone home. (= I think she has probably gone home.)
  

Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences using must.

1. I suppose you are mistaken.
2. I think he is certainly the oldest man in the village.
3. I think she is older than her husband.
4. Surely he is a fool to behave like that.
5. I suppose the poor fellow was cheated by somebody.

Answers

1. You must be mistaken.
2. He must be the oldest man in the village.
3. She must be older than her husband.
4. He must be a fool to behave like that.
5. The poor fellow must have been cheated by somebody.

Changing an affirmative sentence into interrogative and exclamatory

Study the following sentences. They are in the pattern 'adjective + of + noun / pronoun + to-infinitive'.

• It was good of him to help the poor man.
  
• It is foolish of him to throw away his chances like that.
  
• It was clever of him to solve the problem so quickly.
  

These sentences can be rewritten in the interrogative and exclamatory forms.

• How good of him to help the poor man!
  
• How foolish of him to throw away his chances like that!
  
• How clever of him to solve the problem so quickly!
  
• Wasn't it good of him to help the poor man?
  
• Isn't it foolish of him to throw away his chances like that?
  
• Wasn't it clever of him to solve the problem so quickly?
  

Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences in the exclamatory and interrogative forms.

1. It is kind of you to invite us.
2. It was foolish of him to behave like that.
3. It was prudent of the boy to alert the policeman.
4. It was careless of him to leave the door unlocked.

Answers

1. How kind of you to invite us! / Isn't it kind of you to invite us?
2. How foolish of him to behave like that! / Wasn't it foolish of him to behave like that?
3. How prudent of the boy to alert the policeman! / Wasn't it prudent of the boy to alert the policeman?
4. How careless of him to leave the door unlocked! / Wasn't it careless of him to leave the door unlocked?

Using next and nearest

Nearest is used for place. It is used to refer to people or things which are most near in space.

• Excuse me. Where is the nearest hospital? (NOT Where is the next hospital?)
  
• The nearest railway station is two kilometers away.
  

Next is used to talk about time or position in a series. It means 'after this / that one'.

• We will get off at the next station. (NOT We will get off at the nearest station.)
  
• We are looking forward to your next visit. (NOT We are looking forward to your nearest visit.)
  
• As soon as he finished one project, he started planning the next. (NOT … he started planning the nearest.)
  

Next can be used for place in a few fixed expressions. In this case it means 'nearest in space'. The most common expressions of this kind are 'next door' and 'next to'.

• The boy next door is a little careless about truth. (NOT The boy nearest door is a little careless about truth.)
  
• Who is sitting next to Peter? (More natural than 'Who is sitting nearest to Peter?')
  

Distributives

Each, every, either and neither are distributive adjectives. These are normally used with singular nouns.

Position
Distributives are placed immediately before the nouns they qualify.

• Each boy wore a hat.
  
• Neither answer is correct.
  
• Every child needs love.
  

Note
Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns when they are followed by 'of'

• Each of the boys wore a hat.
  
• Neither of the answers is correct.
  

Each

Each is used when we are talking about the members of a group as individuals.

• Each boy was given a watch.
  
• Each of the boys was given a watch.
  

Each and every
Each is preferred when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. Every is similar to all. Every is preferred when we are thinking of people or things together.

• Each patient went to see the doctor. (In turn)
  
• He gave every patient the same medicine.
  

Either and Neither

Either and neither are used to talk about distribution between two things.
Either is used in affirmative clauses. Neither is used in negative clauses.

• Which shirt do you want? Either shirt will do.
  
• I will take either shirt, they are both good.
  
• Neither answer is correct.
  
• Neither of them came.
  

Attributive adjectives after nouns

Most adjectives can go in two main places in a sentence: in attributive position and predicative position.

In attributive position, an adjective comes before the noun it modifies.

• She is a nice girl.
  
• She married a rich businessman.
  

In predicative position, an adjective goes after the verb.

• She is nice.
  
• He looked upset.
  

While attributive adjectives usually go before the nouns, a few can be used after nouns. This, for example, happens in some fixed phrases.

• Secretary General
  
• Poet Laureate
  
• Attorney General
  
• Court martial
  

Some adjectives ending in -able/-ible can also be used after nouns.

• It is the only solution possible.
  
• Book all the tickets available.
  

After something, everything etc.

Adjectives come after words like something, everything, anything, nothing, somebody, anywhere etc.

• I would like to go somewhere quiet. (NOT I would like to go quiet somewhere.)
  
• I heard something interesting today. (NOT I heard interesting something today.)
  

In most expressions of measurement adjectives come after the measurement noun.

• ten years older (NOT Older ten years) (NOT ten older years)
  
• six feet deep
  
• two miles long
  

Verb + object + adjective

Adjectives can be placed after the object.

• You make me happy.
  
• Can you get the children ready for school?
  

Correct use of conjunctions

Scarcely…when

It is wrong to use than instead of when in these sentences:

• Scarcely had I reached the station than the train steamed out. (Incorrect)
  
• Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)
  

If scarcely begins the sentence it should be immediately followed by had.

• Scarcely I had reached the station when the train steamed out. (Incorrect)
  
• Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)
  
• I had scarcely reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)
  

Correlatives

The correlatives either…or, neither…nor, both…and, not only…but also must be placed immediately before the words they relate to.

• Neither he would eat nor allow us to eat. (Incorrect)
  
• He would neither eat nor allow us to eat. (Correct)
  
• Neither I shall follow your instructions nor resign. (Incorrect)
  
• I shall neither follow your instructions nor resign. (Correct)
  
• He not only visited France but also Germany.
  
• He visited not only France but also Germany.
  

Exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate conjunctions

1. I would rather be an engineer —————– a doctor.

2. I cannot excuse you —————— you apologize.

3. Neither a lender —————- a borrower be.

4. Work hard —————– you should fail.

5. Clever ——————- he was, he could not solve the problem.

Answers

1. than

2. unless

3. nor

4. lest

5. as

We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in American English.

It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.

• What time shall we meet?
  
• Shall we vote on it now?
  
• What dress shall I wear?
  
• Shall I open the window?
  

You only really need to know that about 'shall' in modern English. Read the rest of this only if you want to know more about how some older speakers still use 'shall'.

Formerly, in older grammar, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'. Today, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall', it has an idea of a more personal, subjective future.

• I shall go to see the boss and I shall ask him to explain this decision.
  

Notice that the negative of 'shall' can be 'shall not' or 'shan't' – though the second one is now very rare in American English.

• I don't like these people and I shall not go to their party.
  
• I shan't object if you go without me.
  

# May be Useful #

^_^

Facts about Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb, an adverb, and a preposition — the verb's partners are collectively known as particles — that combine to produce a figure of speech. (Phrasal verbs are common in idiomatic expressions, such as "add insult to injury" or "scared them out of their wits.") Examples include "call back," "check up," and "give in."

Note that phrasal verbs can be converted to adverbs or nouns, and when they are, they are either hyphenated or closed up:

"Call back in a few minutes," but "Dial the callback number."

"She's going to check up on it," but "I'm going for a checkup."

Not every phrasal verb has a converted form: "Give in" never appears as give-in, though it's plausible: "He has a give-in attitude" and "I've been guilty of a give-in now and then" make grammatical sense, but those idioms have not been adopted into English. (If the noun form were part of the language, although such forms are generally closed up, give-in would be an exception because the first element of the phrase ends with a vowel.)

Phrasal verbs are easily split by pronouns, nouns, and noun phrases, as in "I'm making it up," "Put your toys away," and "I poured the soup mix in." Note that a phrasal verb can be split or kept together when used with a noun ("Put down your pencils" or "Put your pencils down") but no such choice is possible with a pronoun: You can write, "Put them down," but "Put down them" isn't considered grammatically correct.

Often, though both options may be correct, a phrasal verb may read better with an intervening word or phrase than left intact, and may even more clearly indicate the correct meaning in the former format: The headline "Mom Scares Off Attacker" seems awkward somehow, but move the particle to the end, and it flows more smoothly: "Mom Scares Attacker Off." Likewise, "He passed around a fruit-and-cheese hors d'oeuvre plate" suggests that the subject veered to avoid the plate, whereas "He passed a fruit-and-cheese hors d'oeuvre plate around" clearly conveys that he participated in the movement of the plate.

Also, not every phrasal verb lends itself to splitting: "Gave off," as in "It gave off a foul odor," could conceivably be split ("It gave a foul odor off"), but such syntax looks awkward. In other cases, the elements never appear together, as in "I can't tell them apart," in which tell and apart must be separated by, not followed by, them.

When an additional adverb is included with a phrasal verb, whether the adverb can be inserted within it depends on whether a pronoun or noun has already been inserted. All these variations are correct, including the third one, in which picked and at are separated by gingerly:

"Gingerly, she picked at the food."
"She gingerly picked at the food."
"She picked gingerly at the food."
"She picked at the food gingerly."

(Only "She picked at gingerly the food" and "She picked at the gingerly food" are ungrammatical.)

But in the variations of the following sentence, because a pronoun, not a noun, is involved, the third option is invalid:

"Carefully, he looked it over."
"He carefully looked it over."
"He looked carefully it over."
"He looked it over carefully."

Because of the rich variety of forms possible for phrasal verbs, you are advised, when in doubt, to consult a dictionary's usage note for the root verb of the phrasal verb, or another usage resource.

Facts about Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb, an adverb, and a preposition — the verb's partners are collectively known as particles — that combine to produce a figure of speech. (Phrasal verbs are common in idiomatic expressions, such as "add insult to injury" or "scared them out of their wits.") Examples include "call back," "check up," and "give in."

Note that phrasal verbs can be converted to adverbs or nouns, and when they are, they are either hyphenated or closed up:

"Call back in a few minutes," but "Dial the callback number."

"She's going to check up on it," but "I'm going for a checkup."

Not every phrasal verb has a converted form: "Give in" never appears as give-in, though it's plausible: "He has a give-in attitude" and "I've been guilty of a give-in now and then" make grammatical sense, but those idioms have not been adopted into English. (If the noun form were part of the language, although such forms are generally closed up, give-in would be an exception because the first element of the phrase ends with a vowel.)

Phrasal verbs are easily split by pronouns, nouns, and noun phrases, as in "I'm making it up," "Put your toys away," and "I poured the soup mix in." Note that a phrasal verb can be split or kept together when used with a noun ("Put down your pencils" or "Put your pencils down") but no such choice is possible with a pronoun: You can write, "Put them down," but "Put down them" isn't considered grammatically correct.

Often, though both options may be correct, a phrasal verb may read better with an intervening word or phrase than left intact, and may even more clearly indicate the correct meaning in the former format: The headline "Mom Scares Off Attacker" seems awkward somehow, but move the particle to the end, and it flows more smoothly: "Mom Scares Attacker Off." Likewise, "He passed around a fruit-and-cheese hors d'oeuvre plate" suggests that the subject veered to avoid the plate, whereas "He passed a fruit-and-cheese hors d'oeuvre plate around" clearly conveys that he participated in the movement of the plate.

Also, not every phrasal verb lends itself to splitting: "Gave off," as in "It gave off a foul odor," could conceivably be split ("It gave a foul odor off"), but such syntax looks awkward. In other cases, the elements never appear together, as in "I can't tell them apart," in which tell and apart must be separated by, not followed by, them.

When an additional adverb is included with a phrasal verb, whether the adverb can be inserted within it depends on whether a pronoun or noun has already been inserted. All these variations are correct, including the third one, in which picked and at are separated by gingerly:

"Gingerly, she picked at the food."
"She gingerly picked at the food."
"She picked gingerly at the food."
"She picked at the food gingerly."

(Only "She picked at gingerly the food" and "She picked at the gingerly food" are ungrammatical.)

But in the variations of the following sentence, because a pronoun, not a noun, is involved, the third option is invalid:

"Carefully, he looked it over."
"He carefully looked it over."
"He looked carefully it over."
"He looked it over carefully."

Because of the rich variety of forms possible for phrasal verbs, you are advised, when in doubt, to consult a dictionary's usage note for the root verb of the phrasal verb, or another usage resource.

25 Words and Their Prepositional Pals

You probably know a preposition — a word that shows a relationship between two words or phrases by demonstrating place, time, or another quality — when you see it, but that's grammar. What about usage? Which prepositions go with a given verb or adjective, and when?

Some choices are no-brainers, but others can present a challenge. Here's a guide to various words that require writers to choose from more than one preposition depending on meaning and sentence construction:

1. Abide "with us for a while," "by the rules" (or "I can't abide him").

2. Answer "to him for what you've done," "for what you've done."

3. Caution "about unsafe conditions," "against the rash proposal."

4. Compare "with other products that make the same claims," "apples to oranges."

5. Confide "in her about my problems," "to him what I really think."

6. Conversant "about climate change," "in several languages," "with aspects of technology."

7. Differ "from other species in their diet," "with them about the cause of the company's failure," or "about public policy," "on public policy," or "over public policy."

8. Different "from what he was used to," "than he was used to." From is the preferred usage, but than substitutes for "from what." ("Different to" is a Britishism.)

9. Dissent "against the status quo," "from the majority opinion." (To or with are not considered standard usage.)

10. Dissimilar "to her previous sculpture." (From is considered incorrect.)

11. Enamored "of every woman he meets." (With is considered incorrect.)

12. Equivalent "in amounts," "to the earlier result." (With is not considered standard usage.)

13. Excerpt "from their book was reprinted without their permission." (Of is considered incorrect.)

14. Forbid "him from attending," "him to attend." (To is considered the more correct of the two choices.)

15. Identical "to the one she saw yesterday," "with the one she saw yesterday." (Language purists consider with more correct, but use of to is significantly more common.)

16. Independent "of the group, he protested the plan." (From, as in "Independent from her family," is considered incorrect.)

17. Instilled "instilled a few drops of the solution into the wound," "in him a drive to succeed." (With, as in "Instilled with a drive to succeed," is considered incorrect.)

18. Oblivious "of the warning signs," "to the noise"; the choices are often interchangeable. (About is often used in association with oblivious, but it's not considered standard usage.)

19. Vexed "about her behavior," "at her behavior."

The correct preposition to use with the following words depends on whether the object is a person or a thing:

20. Comment "about her" or "to you about what happened," but "on the issue."

21. Impatient "with him," but "about the delay," "at the delay," or "with the delay."

22. Inquired "of him where he was going" and "after her whereabouts," but "into their progress" or "about the vacant apartment."

23. Mastery "over all other competitors," but "of the skill."

24. Reconcile "with her boyfriend," but "to the loss of her boyfriend."

25. Succeed "as a businessperson," but "to the position."